Engineering Autonomous Vehicles and Robots - The DragonFly Modular-based

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1 Affordable and Reliable Autonomous Driving Through Modular Design 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 High Cost of Autonomous Driving Technologies 2 1.2.1 Sensing 2 1.2.2 HD Map Creation and Maintenance 3 1.2.3 Computing Systems 3 1.3 Achieving Affordability and Reliability 4 1.3.1 Sensor Fusion 4 1.3.2 Modular Design 5 1.3.3 Extending Existing Digital Maps 5 1.4 Modular Design 6 1.4.1 Communication System 7 1.4.2 Chassis 7 1.4.3 mmWave Radar and Sonar for Passive Perception 8 1.4.4 GNSS for Localization 8 1.4.5 Computer Vision for Active Perception and Localization 8 1.4.6 Planning and Control 8 1.4.7 Mapping 9 1.5 The Rest of the Book 9 1.6 Open Source Projects Used in this Book 10 References 11 2 In-Vehicle Communication Systems 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 CAN 13 2.3 FlexRay 16 2.3.1 FlexRay Topology 16 2.3.2 The FlexRay Communication Protocol 17 2.4 CANopen 18 2.4.1 Object Dictionary 19 2.4.2 Profile Family 19 2.4.3 Data Transmission and Network Management 20 2.4.4 Communication Models 21 2.4.5 CANopenNode 21 References 22 3 Chassis Technologies for Autonomous Robots and Vehicles 23 3.1 Introduction 23 3.2 Throttle-by-Wire 23 3.3 Brake-by-Wire 25 3.4 Steer-by-Wire 25 3.5 Open Source Car Control 26 3.5.1 OSCC APIs 26 3.5.2 Hardware 27 3.5.3 Firmware 28 3.6 OpenCaret 29 3.6.1 OSCC Throttle 29 3.6.2 OSCC Brake 29 3.6.3 OSCC Steering 29 3.7 PerceptIn Chassis Software Adaptation Layer 30 References 34 4 Passive Perception with Sonar and Millimeter Wave Radar 35 4.1 Introduction 35 4.2 The Fundamentals of mmWave Radar 35 4.2.1 Range Measurement 36 4.2.2 Velocity Measurement 37 4.2.3 Angle Detection 38 4.3 mmWave Radar Deployment 38 4.4 Sonar Deployment 41 References 45 5 Localization with Real-Time Kinematic Global Navigation Satellite System 47 5.1 Introduction 47 5.2 GNSS Technology Overview 47 5.3 RTK GNSS 49 5.4 RTK-GNSS NtripCaster Setup Steps 52 5.4.1 Set up NtripCaster 52 5.4.2 Start NtripCaster 54 5.5 Setting Up NtripServer and NtripClient on Raspberry Pi 55 5.5.1 Install the Raspberry Pi System 55 5.5.2 Run RTKLIB-str2str on the Raspberry Pi 57 5.5.2.1 Running NtripServer on the Base Station Side 57 5.5.2.2 Running NtripClient on the GNSS Rover 58 5.6 Setting Up a Base Station and a GNSS Rover 59 5.6.1 Base Station Hardware Setup 59 5.6.2 Base Station Software Setup 60 5.6.3 GNSS Rover Setup 67 5.6.3.1 Rover Hardware Setup 67 5.6.3.2 Rover Software Setup 68 5.7 FreeWave Radio Basic Configuration 71 References 75 6 Computer Vision for Perception and Localization 77 6.1 Introduction 77 6.2 Building Computer Vision Hardware 77 6.2.1 Seven Layers of Technologies 78 6.2.2 Hardware Synchronization 80 6.2.3 Computing 80 6.3 Calibration 81 6.3.1 Intrinsic Parameters 81 6.3.2 Extrinsic Parameters 82 6.3.3 Kalibr 82 6.3.3.1 Calibration Target 83 6.3.3.2 Multiple Camera Calibration 83 6.3.3.3 Camera IMU Calibration 84 6.3.3.4 Multi-IMU and IMU Intrinsic Calibration 84 6.4 Localization with Computer Vision 85 6.4.1 VSLAM Overview 85 6.4.2 ORB-SLAM2 86 6.4.2.1 Prerequisites 86 6.4.2.2 Building the ORB-SLAM2 Library 87 6.4.2.3 Running Stereo Datasets 87 6.5 Perception with Computer Vision 87 6.5.1 ELAS for Stereo Depth Perception 88 6.5.2 Mask R-CNN for Object Instance Segmentation 89 6.6 The DragonFly Computer Vision Module 90 6.6.1 DragonFly Localization Interface 90 6.6.2 DragonFly Perception Interface 92 6.6.3 DragonFly+ 93 References 94 7 Planning and Control 97 7.1 Introduction 97 7.2 Route Planning 97 7.2.1 Weighted Directed Graph 98 7.2.2 Dijkstra's Algorithm 99 7.2.3 A* Algorithm 100 7.3 Behavioral Planning 100 7.3.1 Markov Decision Process 101 7.3.2 Value Iteration Algorithm 102 7.3.3 Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) 103 7.3.4 Solving POMDP 104 7.4 Motion Planning 105 7.4.1 Rapidly Exploring Random Tree 105 7.4.2 RRT* 106 7.5 Feedback Control 107 7.5.1 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller 108 7.5.2 Model Predictive Control 108 7.6 Iterative EM Plannning System in Apollo 110 7.6.1 Terminologies 110 7.6.1.1 Path and Trajectory 110 7.6.1.2 SL Coordinate System and Reference Line 110 7.6.1.3 ST Graph 111 7.6.2 Iterative EM Planning Algorithm 112 7.6.2.1 Traffic Decider 113 7.6.2.2 QP Path and QP Speed 114 7.7 PerceptIn's Planning and Control Framework 116 References 118 8 Mapping 119 8.1 Introduction 119 8.2 Digital Maps 119 8.2.1 Open Street Map 120 8.2.1.1 OSM Data Structures 120 8.2.1.2 OSM Software Stack 121 8.2.2 Java OpenStreetMap Editor 121 8.2.2.1 Adding a Node or a Way 123 8.2.2.2 Adding Tags 123 8.2.2.3 Uploading to OSM 124 8.2.3 Nominatim 124 8.2.3.1 Nominatim Architecture 124 8.2.3.2 Place Ranking in Nominatim 125 8.3 High-Definition Maps 125 8.3.1 Characteristics of HD Maps 126 8.3.1.1 High Precision 126 8.3.1.2 Rich Geometric Information and Semantics 126 8.3.1.3 Fresh Data 126 8.3.2 Layers of HD Maps 126 8.3.2.1 2D Orthographic Reflectivity Map 127 8.3.2.2 Digital Elevation Model 127 8.3.2.3 Lane/Road Model 127 8.3.2.4 Stationary Map 127 8.3.3 HD Map Creation 127 8.3.3.1 Data Collection 127 8.3.3.2 Offline Generation of HD Maps 128 8.3.3.2.1 Sensor Fusion and Pose Estimation 128 8.3.3.2.2 Map Data Fusion and Data Processing 129 8.3.3.2.3 3D Object Location Detection 129 8.3.3.2.4 Semantics/Attributes Extraction 129 8.3.3.3 Quality Control and Validation 129 8.3.3.4 Update and Maintenance 129 8.3.3.5 Problems of HD Maps 130 8.4 PerceptIn's pi-Map 130 8.4.1 Topological Map 130 8.4.2 pi-Map Creation 131 References 133 9 Building the DragonFly Pod and Bus 135 9.1 Introduction 135 9.2 Chassis Hardware Specifications 135 9.3 Sensor Configurations 136 9.4 Software Architecture 138 9.5 Mechanism 142 9.6 Data Structures 144 9.6.1 Common Data Structures 144 9.6.2 Chassis Data 146 9.6.3 Localization Data 149 9.6.4 Perception Data 150 9.6.5 Planning Data 153 9.7 User Interface 158 References 160 10 Enabling Commercial Autonomous Space Robotic Explorers 161 10.1 Introduction 161 10.2 Destination Mars 162 10.3 Mars Explorer Autonomy 163 10.3.1 Localization 163 10.3.2 Perception 164 10.3.3 Path Planning 165 10.3.4 The Curiosity Rover and Mars 2020 Explorer 165 10.4 Challenge: Onboard Computing Capability 168 10.5 Conclusion 169 References 170 11 Edge Computing for Autonomous Vehicles 171 11.1 Introduction 171 11.2 Benchmarks 172 11.3 Computing System Architectures 173 11.4 Runtime 175 11.5 Middleware 177 11.6 Case Studies 178 References 179 12 Innovations on the Vehicle-to-Everything Infrastructure 183 12.1 Introduction 183 12.2 Evolution of V2X Technology 183 12.3 Cooperative Autonomous Driving 186 12.4 Challenges 188 References 189 13 Vehicular Edge Security 191 13.1 Introduction 191 13.2 Sensor Security 191 13.3 Operating System Security 192 13.4 Control System Security 193 13.5 V2X Security 193 13.6 Security for Edge Computing 194 References 196 Index 199